Livelihood of Fishermen in Badin District of Sindh

By Aslam Memon & Dr. Ali Muhammad Khushk

Badin District is located in the extreme southeastern area of Sindh and merges into the eastern portion of Indus Delta. This is one the poorer districts of Sindh by most every socioeconomic measures – health, education, maternal mortality and morbidity, income per capita, access to safe drinking water etc (Shah, 2007).

As a coastal district, Badin relies on fisheries as an important component of the economy. The current situation suggests that habitat protection has not been addressed, enrichment is not a priority and general indifference to the fisheries sector is pervasive. As such, it is no surprise that little has been done to check the discharge of dangerous effluents and untreated waste into water sources, which not only seriously undermines water quality but also threatens the existence of fish species.

Badin district is about 50 meters above sea level. As major areas of both the districts of Badin and Thatta are in the coastal belt of the province, fresh salt water balance in these coastal areas is badly disturbed. Vast areas of Thatta and Badin have been degraded due to the gradually progressing sea water and also because of frequent floods and tidal waves of Arabian Sea.

The communities, including fishermen which live within or on the fringes Coastal Belt mainly, consist of households engaged in fishing along with some agriculture, livestock activities. Some members of these communities are involved in trade and the construction and repair of boats and engines. Communities and households, who live further inland, are engaged mainly in agricultural or livestock activities or a combination of both. The fisher folk, known as Mallah, are one of the poorest groups in the area. Mallah community mostly live close to water bodies or lakes and their source of livelihood are fishing, raising livestock, agriculture and other informal labor when that is possible.

Coastal area of Badin is prone to intense rainfall in the monsoon season and natural calamities that typically cause widespread shallow flooding that often persists for long period because of the poor drainage. The area was affected by a cyclone in 1999, followed by an extreme rainfall in 2003. Cyclones cause higher than normal tides and storm surges that result in seawater intrusion across the coastal plain and impede drainage. The widespread and persistent flooding adversely affects the health and livelihoods of fishermen community living in and around coastal zone. It is vulnerable and risky environment in which to sustain a livelihood. The lakes in the area have also undergone drastic changes in the past 10 years as a result of the construction of the Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) that passes directly through two of the main lakes as well as drought and cyclones (Shah, 2007).

Household’s Livelihood strategies

Three major livelihood strategies were found in fisher community shows that majority (52%) of households involved in agriculture along with fishing followed by 28% in agricultural labour with fishing and 20% dependent on only fishing. Some households of all these three groups keep some animals for self use. Respondents reported they not get any significant income from livestock.

Family Structure

Family structure depicts the type of household. 'Joint family' means iliat all members of the household, including the extended family share the same kitchen, whereas the term 'nuclear family' includes only those families where there is a husband, wife and children. Results of survey indicate that majority 97 percent of fishermen living jointly and only 3 percent live nuclear.

Educational Status

Education is always considered as an important factor which changes the behaviour of human beings in particular and living beings in general. Education plays a vital role in the development of the economy. Improving the education sector not only increases efficiency in producing goods and services, but also contributes to poverty alleviation. A market benefit of education is a higher output due to increased labour productivity. Studies on the economies of education have shown that income increases by 2.7 percent with every additional year of primary school education and by 4 percent with every additional year of secondary school education in Sindh (Nasir and Nazli, 2000). Non-market benefits include better health, increased efficiency in job searches and other personal choices. There are also social benefits due to spill-over effects. These include enhanced productivity of coworkers, awareness on birth control, alleviation of environmental stress and crime reduction (Jimenez et al., 2003).

Respondent were questioned about the level of education for each member of the household. For the purpose of comparison, the education level was categorized as adult education (age17 and above) and child education (age 5-16 years).

Educational Status of Adults

The educational status of fishermen is very worst condition majority of population of this community is uneducated. There is significant difference in literacy ratio by sex in this community. The highest level of education for a most of the males (10 percent) and female (one percent) was primary.

Educational Status of Children

Survey results indicate that majority of the children 62 percent boys and 78 percent of girls were not attending school at all. About 33 percent boys and 24 percent girls were enrolled at the primary level. Only 5 percent boys and 2 percent girls were enrolled at the middle level, implying a very high drop out rate at the secondary level.

Overall the educational status of the fisher community is very worst. Among children, more than half of the boys and more than 80 percent of girls are out of school and among adult women about 99 percent are illiterate. The Efforts are also done to identify causes of this worst condition and found factors like lack of schools, large family size, and poverty appears to be major obstacles in the attainment of even basic education.

Educational Facilities

During survey, respondents were asked about the educational services existing near the households. Results show that 92 percent households reported presence of government primary schools from which most were at walking distance and some were located 1-3 kms. Mostly the facility of Government middle schools (55 percent) were existing at distance of 4-6 kms, 17 percent at 7-9 kms and 15 percent at 1-3 kms. Majority of the respondents (68 percent) reported high schools were existing at distance of 7-9 kms and very few (4 percent) reported at 1-3 kms.

Health Services

Respondents were asked about the types of health services near by households. About 49 percent household reported the existence of BHU/RHC, while the presence of clinic was reported by 20 percent households and only 11 percent reported government hospitals. Of those who cited presence of BHU/RHC 42 percent reported a distance of 1-5 km, while 40 percent reported 6-10 km and 10 percent said that the facility was at 11-20 km. A majority of clinics were also at a distance of 1-5 km. While a majority of government hospitals were far away which was at a distance of more than 20 km.

Drinking Water Facility

Access to an improved drinking water supply is not only a basic need and precondition for a healthy life; it is also a human right. “Improved” water supply technologies include: household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected dug well, protected spring, and rainwater collection. “Not improved” include: unprotected well, unprotected spring, vendor-provided water, bottled water, and tanker truck-provided water. Drinking water supply was seen uniformly as a priority issue - the primary sources of drinking water are the watercourses, but since this area is at the extreme tailend of the irrigation system there is often no water in the watercourses and when there is it is polluted and turbid. Majority 68% obtain water from canals and watercourses at a distance of 1-2 kms followed by hand pumps. Water from canal and watercourses is considered unsafe (smelly, salty and dirty).

Type of Toilet Facility and drainage system

Information on sanitation conditions measured by the toilet facilities inside houses and it were noted that open space was used predominantly and some households had pit latrines inside housing units. There appears to be a lack of infrastructure for consolidated management of human waste and waste water disposal. All the houses have either no sewerage system or open drains. An overwhelming majority of households dispose human waste in open fields.

Existence of Utilities

Respondents were asked about the utilities and services such as electricity, gas telephone and mobile available and using by them. Electricity, gas and telephone facilities are not available in study area but majority 78 percent of respondents reported mobile phone service was available in their area. While 57 percent reported they used mobile phone.

Income of Household (Rs)

The household income was calculated and found that the group involve in agriculture and fishing have a highest monthly household income Rs.18,768/- followed by Fishing and agricultural labour. Households dependent only fishing have monthly household income was Rs.9955/-. Per capita income was also calculated and found that household involve in only fishing have lowest per capita income.

Overall income of fisher community by different sources were analyzed and found that major portion of their income 70% comes from fishing followed by 21% from agriculture, 5% from labour and 4% from Livestock.

Monthly Food and non food Expenditure of Household

The results of analyze shows that average household expenditure was Rs.14945. Since the written records of income and expenditure were not available, the actual expenditure may be assumed to be somewhat higher than reported. Results indicate that 52% of the budget expenditure was incurred on food items followed by 11% on maintenance of motorcycle. Expenditure on health was computed to be 8%. About 8% of the budget was spent on health including doctor fees and medicines. Expenditure on clothing and shoes was computed to be 7%. Expenditure on education was 4% only. About 4% and 2% were spent on electricity and phone respectively. Miscellaneous expenditure was computed to be 12% which included pocket money of dependent household members.

The overall results indicates that a large majority live at or below subsistence level, where they are just able to meet their basic needs for food, shelter and clothing for their larger families. Hence, after meeting food consumption they are left with little to spend even on basic needs like health, utility and educational needs of the family members. The economic status of the households can thus be defined as very poor - low monthly income, low expenditures and investment on livelihood improvements and low savings.

Per Capita Calories intake

Analysis was carried out to find per capita calories intake from food and results show that households involve in Fishing and agriculture, averagely adult obtain more 2490 calories per day from food as compared in rice-households involve in fishing and labour 2380 and only in fishing 2275 calories per day.

Further analysis was done to investigate what was the composition of calories obtain by fishermen and found that a major portion of calories 60 percent was obtain from Rice followed by milk 12%. Fish meat, Ghee and cooking oil and sugar become third providing each 8 percent of calories.

Poverty Incidence by Caloric Approach

Caloric intake concept under absolute poverty will be used for assessment of poverty. Under this approach, poverty is defined in-terms of a food poverty line that reflects the minimum food expenditure needed to achieve the minimum required level of caloric intake. It was, therefore, considered essential to have an official poverty line with a standardized methodology to measure poverty in Pakistan. The Planning Commission adopted an official poverty line based on a caloric norm of 2350 calories per adult equivalence per day. On the basis of caloric norm poverty incidence was 58 percent in households involved only in fishing, 41 percent in household involved in fishing and labour and 39 percent in households involved in fishing and agriculture.

Gender Involvement in Decision Making

Households were asked about participation of males and females in family decisions. Participation in important family matters reflects control over the family resources. Only men were actively participating in decision making of each and every matter of the household while women were seen jointly active with male to some extent in important family decisions related to marriage. Females were solely responsible for taking care of livestock. Decisions related to management of HH affairs and financial matters were purely made by males while very few females participated jointly with males.

Women Rights

Majority of the (94 percent) respondents reported that women did caste vote, whoever with the weak decision making power it is possible that the decision is highly influenced by male family members. About 73 percent respondents mentioned prevalence of physical/mental abuse and violence against women. Further more 48 percent accepted that women have right to give consent during nikah/ejob-o-qabool and only 2 percent reported that the women had right to choose marriage partner. That means the choice is already made (with out asking the woman) by the time the marriage ceremony is held. In so far as the woman is informed at the time that parents and family elders decide who she is to marry, it might be considered 'consent' if she has raised no objection. Asking for permission or signature at the time of the wedding ceremony is simply a procedure and must not be confused with consent. Respondents replied negatively for other rights of women like right to practice Family Planning methods, right to go to public places, and ownership/inheritance right.

Disasters and Calamities

Respondents were asked about the major calamities (both natural and man made) in the area, how potent they became. Rains, cyclones and floods were the main calamities of the area, which occurred once or twice in a year.

About half of the households reported that rain occurred 3 to 4 times in the last 5 years, and other half said more than 4 times. While majority reported floods and cyclones were take place 1 to 2 times in last ten years. As far as manmade disaster is concerned about half of the households mentioned that floods due to LBOD comes 1-2 times and a quarter mentioned 3-4 times in the last 5 years.

Respondents were also asked that what kind of damages occurred by these disasters and found that major damage was caused to houses and agriculture by floods, rains, cyclone and floods due to LBOD. While, loss of animals/livestock was mainly due to floods (natural and due to LBOD) and cyclone, rains also spoiled the livestock but in lesser number. Respondents reported that damages of fisheries were mainly happed due to cyclone, floods in LBOD and natural floods. Most of the households reported that Cyclone was the main reason of human loses, while some also mentioned that they lost their beloved due to floods in LBOD. Some respondents also mentioned the other losses include damage of road, agri goods, boats, communication system, spreading of diseases and loss of employment.

Indigenous Disaster Coping Mechanisms

Indigenous disaster coping mechanisms were also asked from respondents. A majority of households reported that there was no mechanism in place to deal with disasters. They said that they “do nothing before disaster”, “no resources to make any arrangement before hand” and “all depends on God”. Some of the respondents reported the following local disaster coping instruments were used:

· First try to leave the village

· Help each other to save life

· Use boats, buffaloes and swim to save life Reach at high or safer place

Change in Livelihood due to LBOD Project

During survey respondents were asked that did the LBOD project bring any change (positive and negative) in their livelihood. All respondents replied 'yes' that the LBOD project brought the changes in their livelihood. A large majority (about 98 percent) of respondents felt that LBOD project brought negative changes in their livelihood, they replied the following changes:

· Agricultural loss/damage

· Damage of crops

· Loss of livestock

· Decrease fish species and fish catch

· Sea water mixed with sweet water

· Increase in diseases due to poor quality of drinking water

· Water logging and salinity increase

The situation of their livelihood before the LBOD project was also investigated. A large majority of the respondents reported the situation of their livelihood was better before LBOD project, they explained that they had getter agricultural crops, fertile lands with better yields. They were safe from floods/less fear of flood. Their livestock and houses were safe. They had more fish catch and more species and the water was also sweet. They financial position of communities was generally better and there was more employment. In general there was more greenery and trees, clean environment and less spread of diseases.

Wheat postharvest.doc

Post Harvest Losses in Wheat

 

Dr. Ali Muhammad Khushk & Aslam Memon

 

About 93 % of the food to feed the people of the world comes from plants, two-thirds of which is contributed by the cereals (wheat, maize, barley, sorghum, and millet). These cereals are the major source of calories and protein. About 80 % of the global cereal production comes from wheat, maize, and rice. Among the cereals, wheat is the largest. Of the two principal types of wheat, 90 % of the world's wheat is bread wheat, which accounts for 94 % of the production. Wheat is grown in 27 countries in the developing world. Pakistan is the eighth largest producer after the Russian Federation, China, U.S., India, Canada, Australia, and Turkey. Durum wheat is grown in North Africa, the Near and Middle East, Russian Federation, India, Italy, France, the Northern U.S., and some areas of Canada (Stubbs et al. 1986).

 

Wheat is the most important crop and it is the staple food for the majority of the population in Pakistan. Being staple food grain, wheat supplies 72 percent of the calories and protein in the average diet. The per capita consumption of wheat in the country, is 120 kg a year, is among the highest in the world. Wheat occupies a central position in agricultural policies, which is grown on about 37 percent of the cropped area and accounts for about 76 percent of the total food grain production. It contributes 13.8 percent to the value added in agriculture and 3.2 percent to GDP. Wheat was cultivated on an area of 8578.2 thousand hectares and total production was 23294.7 thousand tons during 2006-07.

 

Post-Harvest Operations

 

Post-harvest operations are assuming importance due to higher yields and increased cropping intensity. Due to introduction of modern technology, yield levels have substantially increased resulting in a marketable surplus which has to be stored till prices are favorable for sale. With increase in irrigation facilities and easy availability of fertilizers, intensive cropping is being practiced. The harvesting assumes considerable important because the crop has to be harvested as early as possible to make way for another crop. Sometimes, harvesting time may also coincide with heavy rainfall or severe cyclone and floods. In view of these situations suitable technology is, therefore, necessary for reducing the harvesting time and safe storage at farm level. The post-harvest losses are estimated to be about 25 per cent.

 

A recent estimate by the Ministry of Food and Civil supplies put the total preventable post-harvest losses of food grains at about 20 million tons a year, which was nearly 10 per cent of the total production. The principal adviser, planning commission stated that food grains wasted during post-harvest period could have fed up 117 million people for a year.

 

Although post-production operations vary from country to country and region to region throughout the world, procedures are similar among the developing countries. However, operations diversify with farm size such as small landholders, medium scale farmers and progressive growers. Post-production operations will be dissimilar between the developed and developing countries. Functions like harvesting, transportation, threshing, cleaning, drying, storage, packaging and marketing are described below.

 

Harvesting

 

A major proportion of the crop in Pakistan (over 70 percent) is harvested manually using sickles or with types of knives leaving 3-6 cm wheat straw above the ground level. Methods and timing of harvesting are important factors to total crop yield. The most critical decision in harvesting is not the degree of mechanization but the timing of the harvest. If the harvest starts late, the grain becomes too dry and rate of grain shattering is high. The longer a ripe crop is left in the field or on the threshing floor, the higher will be the loss from natural calamities including hailstorm, fire, birds, or rodents. The moisture content of the grain will be high, making drying difficult if the harvest start too early.

 

In Pakistan wheat is harvested in the dry summer months from March to May. Farmers are conscious of the fact that the harvested wheat should be dry enough for threshing and storage. Artificial drying is uncommon. The manually harvested wheat crop is tied into small bundles and stacked in bunches of 10 - 15 bundles, which are left in the field for one to three days to dry. Combine or mechanical harvesters yield a higher proportion of immature grains and pose a moisture hazard, leaving no time for the grain to dry.

 

Threshing

 

Threshing is mainly mechanical (60-80 percentage) in Pakistan. Tractor-driven threshers and at times combine harvesters are used. The design and maintenance of the thresher are central to reducing the broken grain percentage. Threshing using animals is also common in many areas of Pakistan. Several animals continuously walk around a pole to crush the wheat straw and heads to separate the grains and convert the straw to bhoosa.

 

Transport

 

Highly efficient bulk handling systems exist in developed countries to load loose wheat into trucks. Using an auger, wheat is moved to the grain-processing centre in a single trip, dumped into a receiving bin, carried by a mechanical conveyor through the cleaning and drying processes and into storage. Next, it is moved out of storage into the flour mill at the same location, where the finished flour is mechanically bagged, loaded into trucks by elevator, and taken to a commercial bakery or retail market without once being handled manually. National policy regarding the appropriate degree of mechanical wheat handling is often based on the need to maximise employment for unskilled labour.

 

In Pakistan post-harvest handling, transport and storage of grains at the farm level is done partially in bulk. Wheat is mainly transported in animal driven carts or carried on camelback. Large farmers use tractor driven trolleys and trucks. In each case bags are used for transportation. Problems arise when old torn bags are used which spill grain, causing loss. Mostly 100-kg bags are used which are cumbersome to carry. Other hazards for bags are hooks which tear the bags, the rough surface of the carts and trolleys and nails, which damage sacks when they are pulled. Transportation occurs from farm to market, market to consumer, market to temporary storage, temporary storage to long term storage and long term storage to consumers. The food grain trade depends upon labour. Therefore, handling, transport and storage of marketed grains in bags is common. Availability of cheaper jute bags also encourages handling, storage and marketing of grain in bags. Large quantities of food grain have to be moved through road transport, another major factor promoting use of bags.

 

Storage

 

The wheat delivered from the farm at harvest to the village market or to a government food corporation presents different challenges. Since mills need to be able to hold sufficient grain for 30 to 60 days of milling this wheat may be kept in sheds, large steel bins, concrete silos, or in the holding bins of a flour mill. Wheat may be temporarily stored in railroad cars or in open piles in market towns where protection is little better than on a village-threshing floor.

 

Depending on level of the self-sufficiency of the country the marketable surplus of food grain varies by factors comprising farm and family size, productivity and other parameters. In Pakistan, it is generally estimated that approximately 65 to 75 percentage of total wheat produced is stored at the farm. Smaller farms generally keep more grain for consumption. It is estimated that the quantity of wheat entering commercial channels from farms up to maximum 4.5 ha in size is negligible. Nationally, the 4.5 ha farm is worked by about 65 percentage of the farmers, who occupy 35 percentage of the cultivated land.

 

The major food grains are usually stored at the farm in specially constructed mud bins, protected by a cover, inside the house or in the open courtyard. Wheat may also be stored as a heap covered by straw, mud and dung plastered, loose in a room, or in bags, metal bins, baskets and pots. These widely contrasting storage practices may explain the range of storage loss in Asian countries.

 

In Pakistan, the millers' role in wheat storage has been limited by Government subsidies to public sector institutions, which procure about 60% of the marketed portion of the wheat crop. Rather than procuring wheat themselves, millers found it cheaper to procure from these Government institutions which carried out most of the long-term storage. However, when the Government raised their selling price in 1989 and thereby improved the incentives for millers to store, these responded promptly by buying up more stock.

 

The godowns have all the facilities for fumigation, providing aeration and rat proof. Each of the godown can hold 5000 tonnes of bagged food grains. Grain is also stored in bulk using large silos. For want of required storage space in godowns food grains are also stored in the open and this method of storage is known as CAP storage. Cap stands for cover and plinth. Open spaces in warehouses and elsewhere are used for storing produce. Crates are placed on floor, mats are spread on the crates and finally bags are placed over the crates. The stacks are built in the farm of domes. As protection against rain and sun the stacks are covered with thick (600 to 1000 guage) black polythene sheets and the cover is tied to the stack with the help of plastic ropes.

 

Wheat Losses

 

Wheat losses are defined as a measurable decrease of the food quantity and quality. Losses should not be confused with superficial damage generally due to deterioration. Quantitative loss is physical and can be measured in weight or volume, while qualitative loss can only be assessed. Quantitative loss, qualitative loss, nutritional loss, seed viability loss and commercial loss may gauge this reduction.

 

The major factors influencing wheat loss during storage are insects, moulds, birds and rats. Biotic factors including temperature, humidity and type of storage all affect environmental conditions in storage. High temperature causes deterioration, while low temperature is good for storage. High temperature accelerates the respiration of grain, which produces carbon dioxide, heat and water, conditions favourable for spoilage. Humidity equally impacts grain storage. Increasing humidity increases spoilage, while decreasing humidity is good for storage.

 

The type of storage plays a fundamental role in storage efficiency. If a concrete or mud storage structure can absorb water or allow the water vapours to pass through, in the case of a jute bag, the bio-chemical changes and mould attack are minimal, but the risk of insect infestation increases. Sun drying or turning of food grain has many advantages as it provides an opportunity for inspection and precautionary measures to avoid spoilage. Aeration greatly minimises mould growth, insect activity, and respiration of the seed. Further aeration provides a cooling action and equalises the temperature throughout the mass of the grain stored. Bad odours developed by stored grains can be easily and effectively removed.

Climate conditions, grain conditions at storage (presence of infestation, moisture content, foreign matter content), the period of storage, grain and pest control practices all contribute to the rate of loss caused by insects and mould growth. As these factors interact, it is difficult to isolate them or identify one factor, which has a direct influence on loss. Average statistics for loss, whether for store types, areas, or quantities of grain stored are inconclusive. An average figure for loss for a region or a country holds no significance unless a decision regarding a new system of storage, or new pest control techniques is required. Nevertheless average loss figures are always sought. The loss figures consist of the following:

• The weight loss which occurred during storage = The difference between the condition of grain at the end of the storage period, compared to the condition at initial storage
• The weight loss, which happened before the grain was stored (Note: some of the grain under study had been stored elsewhere for an unspecified time).

 

Devolution

Impact of Decentralization on Agricultural Extension System: a case study of Sindh province of Pakistan

Aslam Memon, A. M. Khushk, & M.U. Mallah

Abstract

A study was conducted to asses the impact of decentralization in agricultural extension system in Sindh province of Pakistan. Two districts i.e. Badin and Hyderabad were selected to overview the existing agricultural extension services, financial resources and outcomes of extension worker after decentralization. Study findings show that majority (82%) extension workers had improved their activities; whereas, (72%) farmers claimed that there is no improvement in extension activities after decentralization. It was also investigated that Field Assistants do not receive Traveling Allowances/Daily Allowances (TA/DA) facilities but there is such facility for Agriculture Officers. Executive District Officer Agriculture (EDO) and District Officers (DOs) of respective districts reported that budget has been decreased up to 25 to 30 percent after decentralization. The research-extension-education linkages, which were already weak and insufficient, were further exacerbated. Coordination among all the line departments is sought through placing line departments under the supervision of one person EDO Agriculture at every district. Such coordination would improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the extension effort by avoiding duplication, wastage of time, energy and other resources. The existing system that prevent growers from receiving the correct and timely information, which led to decline in food crop production. There is need to bridge the gap between available knowledge about technologies and actual practice and information delivery service which is the missing link between the research-extension system. The main constraints in agricultural extension services are; inadequate qualified extension staff, lack of coordination, weak linkage among research and extension, farmers and their organizations, limited budget and lack of farmers participation in extension activities.

Key Words: Impact, Decentralization, Agriculture Extension, Pakistan

Introduction

Decentralization of government and administration has been adopted in many developed countries and this trend continues in developing countries. The rationale for the move is that decentralized administration shifts decision-making authority to lower administrative and political levels. These lower level units, being physically close to people, should be able to plan and implement programmes with active involvement of people. The concept is sound, but its implementation in developing countries has, so far, not been smooth for various reasons. For example, central governments have been reluctant in relinquishing their control over decision-making especially in finance; the decentralized units have been showing very weak capacity in running government affairs; and local politician have played havoc in exercising their authority, in an impartial and guided way.

The Agriculture Extension structure in Pakistan is perhaps the oldest organization within the Agriculture Department and is a continuation of the traditional system. It does not suit the present day requirements of a more progressive and integrated approach to agriculture. It is neither operationally attuned to the identification of farmers’ problems nor to a prompt response to their needs. The weaknesses, both in its structure as well as its methodology for transfer of technology to the farmers’, must be addressed on priority if the entire system of extension is to be strengthened and revitalized (Khan, 1998). The slowest progress has been in reforming the technology system, despite the fact that technical change has to play an ever larger role in future growth of agriculture, and is critical to sector competitiveness with liberalized markets. Research, extension, and education need both major institutional reforms and increased funding (Haque, 2002).

In addition, there are some specific problems related to agricultural extension and education. For example, in agricultural extension, there is a very weak mechanism for micro planning at village, Union Council, Markaz and Tehsil levels to mobilize farmers into different interest groups/organizations for enhancing productivity per hectare and marketing their produce. Similarly, Pakistan is faced with the problem of ideally conceived theoretical models, which do not fit into the local situations with special reference to farmers’ organizations, extension infrastructure and available human and financial resources.

An efficient functioning of any organization calls for necessary reforms and improvements in line with the changes in the working environment within which an organization operates. Without such reforms, the organization will either collapse or will keep working inefficiently and eventually become obsolete. Four years ago Government of Pakistan has taken bold decision to decentralize the powers at district level. In other words, district has become the focal point for agricultural activities to be planned and carried out with support of specialists in agricultural research and education.

Before devolution, each provincial department of agriculture had a Directorate-General of Agricultural Extension, administering a large extension network down to the union council level. A union council is a lowest tier of the local government system. Agricultural extension like several other bureaucratic agencies operates on a top-down approach maintaining tenuous linkages with agricultural research, education, and other farm-support system. In this system one Agriculture Officer (AO) guides, trains, and supervise about six to eight FAs. Six to eight AOs are in turn, guided and supervised by an Assistant Director (AD), who is in charge of Agriculture Extension at Sub-division level. Ads are supervised by a Deputy Director, Agriculture, who is in charge of extension work in the district. The Director of Agriculture is responsible for providing leadership at the division level. The overall head of the organization is the Director General. Agricultural extension like several other bureaucratic agencies operates on a top-down approach maintaining tenuous linkages with agricultural research, education, and other farm-support system. However, its level and intensity of operation varies from province to province (Malik, 2003).

Technically, decentralization is the shifting of powers from upper to lower tiers of government and it is more crucial in the process to weigh up and decide what is important and how the various issues are to be treated (Deller, 1998). Decentralization within extension services, and devolution within public administration of powers over the allocation of public funds to support local agricultural (and other) development, are important moves towards the evolution of client-driven processes (Garforth, 1997).

Reforms in the agricultural extension system are generally country specific. However three main ingredients are important for well-structured decentralized governments. First, clarity in assigning the responsibilities with hard budget constraints on nominal central government participation in local functions. Second, revenues must match with the functional responsibilities. Third, a system of accountability balancing central regulations against the local political participation. In short, system based on rules works better than system based on negotiations (Dillinger, 1995). In Pakistan, strengthening the functions of and empowering with more authority to the elected people representatives, the current government announced its devolution plan on August 14, 2001. According to the plan, functions of all service delivery line departments including agricultural extension were transferred from provinces to the newly elected district governments. The introduction of devolution plan is one of the efforts that government has made to introduce drastic changes and to provide bloodline to the existing setup. The plan helps in reducing the bureaucratic impediments and providing people better access to the resources in all the public service departments (Malik, 2003). It underscores the crucial importance of institutional reform, particularly in the domain of public systems, for sustained technical progress and output growth in agriculture. An outline of agrarian organization reveals the disadvantages of small units and the lack of evidence of significant scale economies in agriculture. Whilst there is no need for detailed government control where a commodity or service can be defined unambiguously and all have access (e.g. machinery or fertilizer), it is argued that privatization is not the solution in the case of public goods e.g. the scope for privatization is strictly limited in irrigation research, extension and other infrastructure facilities. Although such services will continue to be mainly the responsibility of the public sector, unless the public sector's efficiency in mobilizing resources and managing these facilities is vastly improved, trade and price policy reform will not make a significant difference to the pace of agricultural growth. It calls for decentralization not only from the center to the states, but also from the state to the local (district) level (Vaidyanathan, 1996).

In the new setup each district of Pakistan is managing its agricultural extension activities where the functions of all sister organizations such as water management, fisheries, livestock, soil conservation, forestry, etc; are put under one manager called as Executive District Officer of Agriculture (EDOA). The designation of Deputy Director Agriculture (DDA) has also been changed as District Officer Agriculture (DOA) who now works under the Executive District Officer Agriculture (EDOA). The EDOA reports to the District Coordination Officer (DCO) who is answerable to the elected District Nazim (administrator) whereas the line departments provide the technical backstopping and monitor the cross-district agricultural development projects. The provincial agriculture extension set-up in the form of Directorate General of Agriculture Extension continues to work and coordinate with the District Extension Services and provides technical support. DG Agriculture Extension retains the subjects of Agricultural Training and Information, Adaptive Research, In-Service Training, Plant Protection and Quality Control, Agricultural Planning and Statistics, and Coordination.

It is revealed that often extension services have been structured and operated on the assumption that farmers’ are largely passive, illiterate and therefore ignorant, and unable to innovate or to integrate new cropping and livestock practices into their established agricultural systems. Key issues that must be addressed are presented: farmers’ priorities in terms of advice and assistance to help them improve productivity on a sustainable basis; the best forms for providing advice and assistance; identifying those responsible for the maintenance of extension services; and how extension services should be funded (Anonymous, 1997). The progressive farmers’ at village level play a very important role in transferring new technologies to the neighboring farmers’ through demonstration and training (Rajbanshi, 1995). There was a general demand for improved information services. Farms of all sizes and types complained particularly of lack of rapid information on supply, demand and market prices of agricultural products (Svatosova et al, 1996).

The most important problems and constraints involved in organizing and managing extension services are: uncertain extension policies on which to build specific extension strategies, weak linkages between technology sources and users, lack of training and incentives for those involved in extension activities, limited financial and material resources, little focus given to women in extension programmes and poor managerial ability in transferring, adapting, managing, monitoring and evaluating imported technologies to improve the structure and effectiveness of extension services in the region. The most important of these is the need for a clear vision in extension policies allowing the formation of development strategies, institutionalization of linkages between the extension service and concerned bodies, farmer participation in planning and the strengthening of extension programmes which target women (Ahmed, 1994).

There is a need to thoroughly review and assess the impact of decentralization of agricultural extension services. Is it successful? Did it really achieve the purpose of making extension services more accessible to farmers? Did the local governments respond favorably as the lead in planning and implementing agricultural programs? What are the benefits that the farmers gain from the decentralization? These and other questions need to be answered in order to evaluate achievements of the purpose of decentralization. This study has been conducted to look at the impact of decentralization on agricultural extension, and identify possible areas of improvement for an effective and efficient devolved agricultural extension.

METHODOLOGY

The aim of this study was to conduct detailed investigation to assess the impact of decentralization in the agricultural extension system in Sindh. For this propose two districts i.e Badin and Hyderabad were randomly selected. The target population for this study consisted of district Nazim, District Coordination Officer, Extension Agents and progressive growers. The sample was selected from a list of farmers provided by the Department of Agriculture Extension using sampling techniques. The Agriculture Officers, Deputy District Officers and District Officers and Executive District Officer Agriculture were also interviewed from district Hyderabad and Badin. A questionnaire was developed through review of literature and guidance from the subject specialist in the area. The first part of the questionnaire included questions regarding selected demographic and socio-economic characteristics. The second part of the questionnaire consisted of impact of decentralization in the agriculture extension system.

Results and Discussion

Facilities

Impact assessment, simply defined, is the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. Impact assessment is about making the best possible decision using the best available information in a systematic and proper manner. It is essential to a sound and sustainable business operation. It is also an essential part of good governance and a key to sustainable development. Efforts have been made during survey to assess the impact of decentralization on the department of Agriculture Extension, its facilities, financial resources and activities of extension workers after decentralization. As it is well known that, timely and availability of transport facility with extension worker may enhance working efficiency. It was found that majority (86 percent) of the agricultural extension staff reported that there is no change in transport facility, but in some places this facility has been decreased after decentralization. Also the housing facility for extension staff has been examined and it was found that this facility was not improved after decentralization but to some extent this facility has been decreased after decentralization. In addition to that medical facility of extension staff has been examined and found that Extension staff members did not have this facility before decentralization and same trend remain continue after decentralization.

The TA/DA facility of extension staff has been reviewed and it was found that this facility for extension staff did not improved after decentralization. The key informants reported that Field Assistants does not acquire any TA/DA but very little amount received by Agriculture Officers. Overall 48 percent respondents reported that this facility has been decreased.

Finance

From the extension staff it was asked that how decentralization affect the financial matters of agricultural extension system. All of the Agriculture Officers and Deputy District Officers reported that they are not involved in financial transaction and only EDO and District Officers deal financial matters. Deputy District Officers reported that they have not received any type of money for operational expenditure for the office. EDO and District Officers reported that budget has been decreased up to 25 percent to 30 percent in budget of Agriculture Extension after decentralization. They reported that before decentralization they received quarterly budget and after decentralization they are receiving budget on monthly basis which create problems in utilizing in different heads and also makes difficult to manage demonstration plots. In response to an opinion question, all DDOs are interested be involved in financial matters. They like to have authority to utilize budget at taluka level.

Activities

Wall Chalking

Wall chalking is one of the important activities of extension for transfer of new knowledge to farmers. It was investigated during discussion with farmers and extension agents about the improvements in wall chalking activities after decentralization. The extension agents 16%, 2%, 18%, 40% and 24% reported that no change, very little improvement, little improvement, much improvement and too much improvement respectively. Whereas, in case of farmers 46%, 16%, 16% and 22% pointed out that no change, very little improvement, little improvement and much improvement respectively (table 1).

Printed Material

Distribution of printed material among farmers is an important activity of extension department for transfer of new scientific information among farmers. The extension agents 16%, 8%, 22%, 40% and 14% reported that no change, very little improvement, little improvement, much improvement and too much improvement respectively in distribution of printed material after decentralization. Whereas, in case of farmers 62%, 14%, 12% and 12% reported that there is no change, very little improvement, little improvement and much improvement respectively in distribution of printing material (table 1).

Demonstration Plots

Demonstration plots are more effective source to motivate farmers to adopt new technologies on their farms so it was important to see how much improvement comes in this activity after decentralization. The extension agents 16%, 12%, 20%, 38% and 14% reported that no change, very little increase, little increase, much increase and too much increase respectively in demonstration plots. Whereas, in case of farmers 62%, 14%, 22% and 2% reported that no change, very little increase, little increase and much increase in demonstration plots respectively (table 1).

Printing of Agricultural Technologies

Printing of agricultural technologies in the shape of books booklets, magazines, newspapers and brochures etc are most important lies in the fact that the information may be kept and preserved as documentation for a long time and modern technology transferred from researchers to the farmers who are the end users. The impact on printing of Agricultural technologies was investigated from extension agents and results indicate that 20%, 8%, 28%, 36% and 8% reported that no change, very little increase, little increase, much increase and too much increase in printing of agricultural technologies respectively (table 1).

Seminars

Seminars are also very important activity in transferring technology among stakeholders. The improvement in frequency of seminars organized by agriculture extension was investigated from extension staff and farmers. The extension agents 26%, 14%, 12%, 42% and 6% perceived that no change, very little improvement, little improvement, much improve and too much improvement respectively in organizing of seminars after decentralization. Whereas, majority (62 percent) of farmers reported no change in organizing seminars by agricultural extension followed by 16%, 20% and 2% respondents reported very little improvement, little improvement and much improvement respectively (table 1).

Radio Programmes

Radio is an immensely powerful technology for the delivery of education and quick information with enormous global potential reach. Radio can motivate people by building on aural/oral traditions and stimulate the imagination better than video or television. These receivers are widely available, comparatively cheap and portable, making them convenient for listeners. Keeping in view the importance of radio as source of information, the use of radio for extension messages after decentralization was investigated from extension agents and farmers. The extension agents 18%, 24%, 36%, and 22% perceived that no change, very little improvement, little improvement and much improvement respectively in extension messages on radio after decentralization. Whereas, majority (62 percent) of farmers reported no change in extension messages on radio after decentralization followed by 26%, and 12% respondents reported very little improvement, and little improvement respectively (table 1).

Advice to Farmers

The timely advice to farmers provided by agriculture extension was investigated from extension staff and farmers. The extension agents 26%, 16%, 32%, and 26% reported that no change, very little improvement, little improvement, much improvement and too much improvement respectively in timely advice after decentralization. Whereas, majority (78 percent) of farmers reported no change in timely advice provided by agriculture extension after decentralization followed by 8%, and 14% respondents reported very little improvement, and little improvement respectively (table 1).

Farm Visits

Farm visit is the duty of extension agents, through this activity extension agents receive feedback from farmers and give them advices on the spot. The farm visits of extension staff were investigated from extension staff and farmers. The extension agents 36%, 10%, 32%, 20% and 2% reported that no change, very little increase, little increase, much increase and too much increase respectively in frequency of farm visits of extension staffs after decentralization. Whereas, 82 percent farmers reported no change in farm visits of extension staff after decentralization of agriculture extension remaining 16%, and 2% respondents reported very little improvement, and little improvement in farm visits of extension staff (table 1).

Farmers Training

Farmers’ training is an important activity of extension department to train farmers to use new technology. The increase in farmers trainings organized by agriculture extension after decentralization was investigated from extension staff and farmers. The extension agents 48%, 24%, 16%, and 12% reported that no change, very little increase, little increase, and much increase respectively in farmers training organized after decentralization. Whereas, 88 percent of farmers reported no change in farmers training after decentralization of agriculture extension followed by 8%, 2% and 2% respondents reported very little improvement, little improvement and much improvement in farmers training programs after decentralization (table 1).

TV Programmes

TV is a most powerful media of information exchange in these days. Keeping in view the importance of TV as a major source of dissemination of information among farmers, the use of TV for extension messages after decentralization was investigate from extension agents and farmers. Majority 56% of extension agents reported that there is no change in extension messages on TV followed by 22%, 12%, and 10% perceived that very little improvement, little improvement and much improvement respectively in frequency of extension messages on TV after decentralization. Whereas, 86 percent of farmers reported no change in extension messages on TV after decentralization and remaining 14% farmers reported very little improvement (table 1).

Exhibitions

The exhibitions arrangement after decentralization was investigated from extension staff and farmers. Majority 60% of extension agents reported that no change in agricultural exhibitions organized followed by 18%, 12%, and 10% perceived that very little improvement, little improvement and much improvement respectively in agricultural exhibitions organized by agricultural extension after decentralization. Whereas, all of the farmers reported that there is no change in agricultural exhibitions organized after decentralization of agriculture extension (table 1).

Market Information

Improvement in flow of market information to farmers was investigated from extension staff and farmers. Majority 80% of extension agents reported that there is no change in flow of market information followed by 10%, 8%, and 2% perceived that very little improvement, little improvement and much improvement respectively. Whereas, all sampled farmers reported there is no change in market information after decentralization of agriculture extension. In addition to that role of market agent after decentralization was examined from extension agents and farmers. All sampled extension agents and farmers reported no change in the role of market agent after decentralization (table 1).

Conclusion

Based on the initial investigation it can be concluded that extension agents known as agricultural educator's primary concern is to teach vocational and technical agriculture in all levels and undertake planning and evaluation in agricultural/rural development. They were responsible for the dissemination of appropriate technology in agriculture. While working condition in the existing system of extension personnel have been deteriorated, as it was expected that their role are increasing. They are no longer to be simply transmitters of technical knowledge.

The devolved agricultural extension services are anticipated to result an improved monitoring and evaluation setup in the country as the accountability of extension services is given to the elected local and district government representatives. The problems and issues of agriculture are now being addressed at the local level. Unlike past when everything was centralized with the provincial government, the task of planning and launching any specific campaign in case of outbreak of any disease rests with the district government. Moreover, an attempt has also been made to replace the existing supply oriented delivery system with the demand oriented system ensuring active participation of local people in the process of planning, monitoring and evaluation and bringing it down to the grassroots level.

There is a need of an effective coordination among all the line departments is sought through placing them under the supervision of one person EDOA at every district. Such coordination would improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the extension effort by avoiding duplication, wastage of time, energy and other resources.

On the other hand, it is widely perceived that the elected representatives of the district government are more inclined towards civil works, electricity and other development projects rather than promoting agricultural activities. Thus, their lack of interest and commitment towards agriculture affects the overall performance of agricultural extension system. As a result, the decentralization has further marginalized the extension services - - lack of recognition, importance, budget, and training facilities. It has also weakened the morale and motivation of the agriculture officers and staff. While under the decentralization, the agriculture extension service is placed under the district government and the other sister organizations such as agricultural research, adaptive research, agricultural engineering, agricultural education, etc; are under the control of provincial government. Therefore, the research-extension-education linkages, which were already weak and insufficient, were further exacerbated. The district extension service operates in isolation and without any regular backstopping from agricultural research. Likewise, its disassociation from the Directorate General of Extension has diminished the technical support it used to receive from the provincial system. Abrupt merger of livestock, dairy, fisheries, poultry, forestry, food, cooperatives, water management, and similar other departments with agricultural extension have created ample confusion. By virtue of seniority in service, at several places the officers from outside agricultural extension service became the EDOA. Apart from the professional performance, the extension service under the new arrangements is grappling with the creation of new rules, regulations, service structure and administrative and financial discipline. It seems that it will take a long time to achieve the desired objectives of the decentralization of agriculture extension service.

Results indicated that majority of the extension agents had reported improvement in all extension activities after decentralization but in other side a vast majority of farmers reported these is no change in all extension activities after decentralization. Majority 82 percent of the extension agents perceived improvement in overall performance of the agricultural extension. Whereas, majority 72 percent of the farmers reported there is no change in the overall performance of the agriculture extension after decentralization.

References

Anonymous 1997. Extension services: master or servant? Journal-article. Focus on countries within Africa. Spore, No. 68, 1-3; 3 ref.

Ahmed, A.H 1994. Experience with agricultural extension in the ESCWA region. Agriculture-and-Development-in-Western-Asia., No. 16, 24,31-40.United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia; Amman; Jordan

Deller, S.C. 1998. Local Government Structure, Devolution, and Privatization; Review of Agricultural Economics; 20:1, 135-154.

Dillinger, B. 1995. Decentralization, Politics and Public Services; in: A. Estache (ed.), Decentralizing Infrastructure: Advantages and Limitations: Washington, D.C: The World bank Discussion Paper.

Garforth,C. 1997. Supporting sustainable agriculture through extension in Asia. ODI-Natural-Resource-Perspectives. 21(4): Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Department, University of Reading, PO Box 258, Reading, RG6 6AL, UK. Overseas Development Institute; London; UK

Haque, U. I. 2002. Uplift of Landless Poor thru Agricultural Reforms: WB. The Dawn Group of Newspapers 29 April. http://Dawn.com

Khan, A. M. 1998. Restructuring of the Agriculture Department in NWFP. Unpublished Report presented by The Committee for Restructuring of the Agriculture Department in NWFP to the Chief Minister NWFP, Peshawar. December, 30.

Malik. W. 2003. Operationalizing Agricultural Extension Reforms in South Asia. A case study. Paper presented at Regional Workshop held in New Delhi, India. Organised by Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. In Collaboration with The World Bank.

Rajbanshi,K.G. 1995 . Aquaculture extension services review: Nepal. FAO-Fisheries-Circular. 1995, No. 896, ix + 37 pp. CHA/2/835, Nursery Lane, Banslari,

Svatosova,L., Prasilova,M. 1996 Analysis of the state and needs of the Czech agricultural extension service. Zemedelska-Ekonomika. 42(10),PP 465-471. Ceska zemedelska Univerzita, 165 21 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic.

Vaidyanathan, A. 1996. Agricultural development: imperatives of institutional reform. Economic-and-Political-Weekly. 1996, 31: 35-36-37, 2451-2458; 18.

Table 1. Impact of Decentralization on Extension Activities

Activities	Extension Agents					Farmers
	No Change	Very Little Improvement	Little Improvement	Much Improvement	Too Much Improvement	No Change	Very Little Improvement	Little Improvement	Much Improvement	Too Much Improvement
Wall Chalking	16	02	18	40	24	46	16	16	22	-
Distribution of Printing Material	16	08	22	40	14	62	14	12	12	-
D. Plots	16	12	20	38	14	62	14	22	02	-
Printing of Agri. Technologies	20	08	28	36	08	-	-	-	-	-
Seminars	26	14	12	42	06	62	16	20	02	-
Radio Programmes	18	24	36	22	-	62	26	12	-	-
Timely Advice	26	16	32	26	-	78	08	14	-	-
Farm Visits	36	10	32	20	02	82	16	02	-	-
Farmers Training	48	24	16	12	-	88	08	02	02	-
TV Programmes	56	22	12	10	-	86	14	-	-	-
Exhibition	60	18	12	10	-	100	-	-	-	-
Flow of Market Information	80	10	08	02	-	100	-	-	-	-

ANNEXURE – I

ORGANIZATION CHART BEFORE DECENTRALIZATION OF
AGRICULTURE EXTENSION DEPARTMENT

ORGANIZATION CHART AFTER DECENTRALIZATION OF
AGRICULTURE EXTENSION DEPARTMENT

1